Chapter 17

17.Managing Leadership and Influence Processes

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The Nature of Leadership

What does leadership mean?

A process, the use of non-coercive influence to shape the group’s or organization’s goals, and:

Motivate behavior.

Define group or organizational culture.

What are the characteristics of those who are perceived to be leaders?

Who Are Leaders?

People who:

Can influence the behaviors of others.

Are able to influence without having to rely on force.

Are accepted by others as leaders.

Leadership Versus Management

MANAGEMENT:

Planning and budgeting.

Organizing and staffing.

Controlling and problem solving.

Producing a degree of predictability.

LEADERSHIP:

Establishing direction.

Aligning people.

Motivating and inspiring.

Producing change, often to a dramatic degree.

Power and Leadership

What is power?

The ability to affect the behavior of others.

Legitimate power:

Power granted through the organizational structure, it is the power accorded people occupying particular positions as defined by the organization.

Reward Power Defined

Reward power:

The power to give or withhold rewards, such as:

Salary increases.

Bonuses.

Promotion.

Recommendation.

Types of Power

Coercive power:

The power to force compliance by means of psychological, emotional, or physical threat.

Referent power:

The personal power that accrues to someone based on identification, imitation, loyalty, or charisma.

What Is Expert Power?

The personal power that accrues to someone based on the information or expertise that they possess.

Michigan Studies on Leadership Behavior

Job-centered leader:

Leaders who pay close attention to an employ’s job and work procedures involved with that job.

Employee-centered leader:

Leaders who develop cohesive work groups and ensure employee satisfaction.

Ohio State Leadership Studies

Initiating-structure behavior:

Leaders who define the leader-subordinate roles so that everyone knows what is expected, establish formal lines of communication, and determine how tasks will be performed.

Consideration behavior:

Leaders who show concern for subordinates and attempt to establish a friendly and supportive climate.

The Leadership Grid

A method of evaluating leadership styles to train managers using OD techniques so that they are simultaneously more concerned for both people and production.

Concern for production:

Deals with the job aspects of leader behavior.

Concern for people:

Deals with the people aspects of leader behavior.

LPC Theory

LPC THEORY:

Suggests that the appropriate style of leadership varies with situational favorableness.

Least preferred coworker (LPC):

The measuring scale that asks leaders to describe the person with whom she/he is able to work least well.

The Path-Goal Theory

A theory of leadership suggesting that the primary functions of a leader are to make valued or desired rewards available in the workplace.

Clarifies for the subordinate the kinds of behavior that will lead to goal accomplishment and valued rewards.

Decision Making Styles

Decide: Manager makes decision.

Consult: (Individually), Present problem to group members individually.

Consult: (Group). Present problem to group members.

Facilitate: Present to group and facilitate group member discussion.

Delegate: Allow group to define parameters, then develop solutions.

The Leader-Member Exchange Approach

Stresses the importance of variable relationships between supervisors and each of their subordinates.

Related Perspectives on Leadership

Substitutes for leadership:

Identifies situations in which leader behaviors are neutralized or replaced by characteristics of subordinates, the task, and the organization.

Charismatic leadership:

Assumes that charisma in an individual characteristic of the leader.

Charisma:

A form of interpersonal attraction that inspires support and acceptance.

Transformational Leadership

Leadership that goes beyond ordinary expectations by transmitting a sense of mission, stimulating learning experiences, and inspiring new ways of thinking.

Political Behavior in Organizations

Political behavior:

Activities carried out for the specific purpose of acquiring, developing, and using power and other resources to obtain one’s preferred outcomes.

Impression management:

A direct and intentional effort by someone to enhance his/her image in the eyes of others.

Chapter 16

16. Managing Employee Motivation and Performance

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The Nature of Motivation

If an employee chooses to work hard one day, and work just hard enough to avoid reprimand, or as little as possible on another day, what then is “Motivation?”

Motivation is the set of forces that causes people to behave in certain ways.

The Importance of Motivation in the Workplace

What are the three factors that determine individual performance?

Motivation: The desire to do the job.

Ability: The capability to do the job.

Work environment: The resources needed to do the job.

What Was the Traditional Approach?

Economic gain was the primary thing that motivated employees.

Money was more important to employees that the nature of the job.

Employees could be expected to perform any kind of job if they were paid.

What Is the Human Relations Approach?

It emphasizes the role of social processes in the workplace.

Employees want to feel useful and important.

Are these social needs more important than money?

YES!

Content Perspectives on Motivation

Content perspectives are?

Approaches to motivation that try to answer the question, ”What factors in the workplace motivate people?”

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is?

Physiological ? Security ? Belongingness Esteem ? Self-actualization

What Is the ERG Theory?

Suggests that people’s needs are grouped into three possibly overlapping categories.

What are they?

Existence.

Relatedness.

Growth.

What Is the Two-Factor Theory?

Suggests that people’s satisfaction and dissatisfaction are influenced by two independent set of factors.

Can you name them?

Motivation factors.

Hygiene factors.

The following is a micro view of the Two-Factor theory:

Micro View of the Two-Factor Theory

Motivation factors:

Achievement

Recognition

The work itself

Responsibility

Advancement and growth

Hygiene factors:

Supervisors

Working conditions

Interpersonal relations

Pay and security

Company policies and administration

What Are the Individual Human Needs?

Need for achievement:

The desire to accomplish a goal or task more effectively than in the past.

Need for affiliation:

The desire for human companionship and acceptance.

Need for power:

The desire to be influential in a group and to control one’s environment.

Process Perspectives on Motivation Is?

How does motivation occur?

Process perspectives:

Approaches to motivation that focus on why people choose certain behavioral options to satisfy their needs and how they evaluate their satisfaction after they have attained these goals.

What Is the Expectancy Theory?

Suggests that motivation depends on two factors.

What are the two factors?

How much we want something.

How likely we think we are to get it.

The Equity Theory

What is it?

Suggests that people are motivated to seek social equity in the rewards they receive for performance.

Porter-Lawler Extension theory:

Suggests that if performance results in equitable rewards, people will be more satisfied. Thus, performance can lead to satisfaction.

Goal-Setting Theory

Goal difficulty:

The extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort.

Goal specificity:

The clarity and precision of the goal.

Elements of Reinforcement Theory

Arrangement of the reinforcement contingencies:

Positive reinforcement.

Avoidance.

Punishment.

Extinction.

Schedules for applying reinforcement:

Fixed interval.

Variable interval.

Fixed ratio.

Variable ratio.

Popular Motivational Strategies

Empowerment:

The process of enabling workers to set their own work goals, make decisions, and solve problems within their sphere of responsibility and authority.

Participation:

The process of giving employees a voice in making decisions about their own work.

New Forms of Working Arrangements

Flexible work schedules.

Job sharing.

Compressed work schedules.

Telecommuting.

Reward Systems

Reward system:

The formal and informal mechanism by which employee performance is defined, evaluated, and rewarded.

Merit system:

A reward system whereby people get different pay raises at the end of the year depending on their overall job performance.

Incentive system:

A reward system whereby people get different pay amounts at each pay period in proportion to what they do.

Chapter 15

15.Basic Elements of Individual Behavior in Organizations

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Understanding Individuals’ Behavior

In order to understand human behavior in the workplace, what needs to be considered?

We must consider the basic nature of the relationship between individuals and organizations.

What is the psychological contract?

The overall set of expectations held by an organization with respect to what the employee will contribute to the organization and what the organization will provide in return.

The Psychological Contract

Contributions from individuals:

Effort.

Ability.

Loyalty.

Skills.

Time.

Competencies.

Inducements from the organization:

Pay.

Job security.

Benefits.

Career opportunities.

Status.

Promotion opportunities.

The Person-Job Fit

The specific aspect of managing psychological contracts is managing?

Person-Job fit: the extent to which the contributions made by the individual match the inducements offered by the organization.

What Is the Nature of Individual Differences?

Individual differences are personal attributes that vary from one person to another.

What are individual differences?

Physical.

Psychological.

Emotional.

Personality and Individual Behavior

What is personality?

The relatively stable set of psychological and behavioral attributes that distinguish one person from another.

Can You Name the “Big Five” Personality Traits?

Agreeableness: a person’s ability to get along with others.

Conscientiousness: the number of goals on which a person focuses.

Negative emotionality: the extent to which a person is poised calm, resilient, and secure.

Extraversion: a person’s comfort level with relationships.

Openness: a person’s rigidity of beliefs and range of interests.

Other Personality Traits at Work

Locus of control:

The extent to which people believe that their behavior has a real effect on what happens to them.

Self-efficacy:

A person’s beliefs about her or his capabilities to perform a task.

What Is Authoritarianism?

The extent to which an individual believes that power and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social systems like organizations.

Machiavellianism:

Behavior directed at gaining power and controlling the behavior of others.

Self-esteem:

The extent to which a person believes that they are a worthwhile and deserving individual.

What Is Risk Propensity?

The degree to which an individual is willing to take chances and make risky decisions.

Attitudes and Individual Behavior

What are attitudes?

Complexes of beliefs and feelings that people have about specific ideas, situations, or other people.

Cognitive dissonance:

The conflict individuals experience among their own attitudes.

Work-Related Attitudes

Job satisfaction or dissatisfaction:

An attitude that reflects the extent to which an individual is gratified by or fulfilled in his or her work.

Organizational commitment:

An attitude that reflects an individual’s identification with and attachment to the organization itself.

Affects and Mood in Organizations

Positive affectivity:

A tendency to be relatively upbeat and optimistic, have an overall sense of well-being, see things in a positive light, and seem to be in a good mood.

Negative affectivity:

A tendency to be generally downbeat and pessimistic, see things in a negative way, and seem to be in a bad mood.

Perception and Individual Behavior

What is perception?

The set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets information about the environment.

What is selective perception?

The process of screening out information that we are uncomfortable with or that contradicts our beliefs.

The Perceptual Process

Stereotyping:

The process of categorizing or labeling people on the basis of a single attribute.

Attribution:

A mechanism through which we observe behavior and then attribute causes to it.

Stress and Individual Behavior

What is stress?

An individual’s response to a strong stimulus, which is called a stressor.

What is general adaptation syndrome?

General cycle of the stress process.

Can You Name the Personality Types?

Type A:

Individuals who are extremely competitive, are very devoted to work, and have a strong sense of time urgency.

Type B:

Individuals who are less competitive, are less devoted to work, and have weaker sense of time urgency.

Organizational Stressors:

Task demands

Physical demands

Role demands

Interpersonal demands

What Is Burnout?

A feeling of exhaustion that may develop when someone experiences too much stress for an extended period of time.

Creativity in Organizations

What is creativity?

The ability of an individual to generate new ideas or to conceive of new perspectives on existing ideas.

What are the components of the creative process?

Preparation

Incubation

Insight

Verification

Types of Workplace Behavior

What is workplace behavior?

A pattern of action by the members of an organization that directly or indirectly influences organizational effectiveness.

What are the behaviors?

Performance behaviors: the total set of work-related behaviors that the organization expects.

Withdrawal Behavior

What is it?

Absenteeism: When an individual does not report for work.

Turnover:

When people quit their jobs.

Chapter 14

14. Managing Human Resources in Organizations

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The Environmental Context of Human Resource Management

What is Human Resource Management?

(HRM), the set of organizational activities directed at attracting, developing, and maintaining an effective workforce.

Why Human Resource Management?

Human resources are critical for effective organizational functioning.

The Strategic Importance of HRM

What is the status of HRMs in organizations?

Once regarded as second class, the HRMs now play an important role because of:

Increased legal complexities.

Improving productivity.

Awareness of the costs associated with poor HRM.

The Legal Environment of HRM

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964:

Forbids discrimination on the basis of gender, race, color, religion, or national origin in all areas of the employment relationship.

Adverse impact:

When minority group members pass a selection standard at a rate less than 80 percent of the rate of majority group members.

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission

What is it?

Charged with enforcing Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as well as several other employment-related laws.

Can you define the Age Discrimination in Employment Act?

Outlaws discrimination against people older than forty years; passed in 1967, amended in 1978 and 1986.

Affirmative Action

What was the intention of this legislation?

Intentionally seeking and hiring employees from groups that are underrepresented in the organization.

Civil Rights Act of 1991

How has this legislation affected discrimination lawsuits?

Amends the original Civil Rights Act, making it easier to bring discrimination lawsuits while also limiting punitive damages that can be awarded in those lawsuits.

Fair Labor Standards Act

How does this act protect wages?

Sets a minimum wage and requires overtime pay for work in excess of forty hours per week; passed in 1938 and amended frequently since then.

Equal Pay Act of 1963

What does this legislation require?

Requires that men and women be paid the same amount for doing the same job.

What standards does the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA), set?

Sets standards for pension plan management and provides federal insurance if pension funds go bankrupt.

Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993

What does this act require?

Requires employers to provide up to twelve weeks of unpaid leave for family and medical emergencies.

What procedures does the National Labor Relations Act call for?

Passed in 1935 to set up procedures for employees to vote whether to have a union; also known as the Wagner Act.

National Labor Relations Board

What is its function?

Established by the Wagner Act to enforce its provisions.

What does the Labor Management Relations Act limit?

Passed in 1947 to limit union power; also known as the Taft Hartley Act.

OSHA

What does OSHA stand for?

Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970: Directly mandates the provisions of safe working conditions.

Change and HRM

What does “Employment at Will” limit?

A traditional view of the workplace in which organizations can fire their employees for any reason; recent court judgments are limiting employment-at-will.

Attracting Human Resources

What is a Job Analysis?

A systematic analysis of jobs within an organization.

How do HRMs forecast human resource demand and supply?

Assessing trends.

Sales forecast analysis.

Forecasting the labor supply.

Plan for dealing with predicted shortfalls or overstaffing.

Recruiting Human Resources

What does recruiting consist of?

Attracting qualified persons to apply for the jobs that are open.

What are the forms of recruiting?

Internal recruiting: considering present employees as candidates for openings.

External recruiting: attracting persons outside the organization to apply for jobs.

Developing Human Resources

What does training mean?

Teaching operational or technical employees how to do the job for which they were hired.

What is employee development?

Teaching managers and professionals the skills needed for both present and future jobs. (see next slide Figure 14.2 for illustration on training)

What Is a Performance Appraisal?

A formal assessment of how well an employee is doing his or her job.

There are various form of appraisals such as:

Behaviorally anchored rating scale (BARS), a sophisticated rating method in which supervisors construct a rating scale associated with behavioral anchors. (see next two slides for Figures 14.3 and 14.4)

Can You Define Labor Relations?

The process of dealing with employees when they are represented by a labor union. (see next slide Figure 14.5)

Define the following:

Collective bargaining

The process of agreeing on a satisfactory labor contract.

Grievance procedure

The means by which a labor contract is enforced.

Chapter 11

11. Basic Elements of Organizing

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What Is Organizing?

Deciding how best to group organizational activities and resources.

What are the building blocks of organizing?

Organization Structure:

The set of elements that can be used to configure an organization.

Why Do You Have to Organize an Organization?

Because all the structural elements of the company and how those elements work together are used to manage the total organization.

The Importance of Organizing

Clarifies

Divides

Provides

Establishes

Develops

Relates

Establishes authority

Organizing Leads to Decision Making

Decision making is part of planning that involves selecting a course of action.

When the manager is organized activities are coordinated.

Organizational Structure

The building blocks used to form an organization.

One of the manager’s jobs is to know how to put the building blocks together.

Designing Jobs

What is one of the building blocks?

Job Design:

The determination of an individual’s work-related responsibilities.

Overall Tasks Are Broken Down By?

Job Specialization:

The degree to which the overall task of the organization is broken down and divided into smaller component parts.

The Five Alternatives to Job Specialization:

Job Rotation:

Involves systematically moving employees from one job to another.

Job Enlargement:

Involves increasing the total number of tasks worker performs.

Job Enrichment:

Involves increasing both the number of tasks the worker does and the control the worker has over the job.

Job Characteristics Approach:

Suggests that jobs should be diagnosed and improved along five core dimensions, taking into account both the work system and employee preferences.

Work Teams:

Allows an entire group to design the work system it will use to perform an interrelated set of tasks.

Job Characteristics Approach

This is an alternative to job specialization. See Figure 11.1, the job characteristics approach. This approach suggests that jobs should be diagnosed and improved along five core dimensions:

Skill variety

Task identity

Task significance

Autonomy

Feedback

Grouping Jobs: Departmentalization

What is it?

The process of grouping jobs according to some logical arrangement.

Functional Departmentalization:

Grouping jobs involving the same or similar activities.

Product Departmentalization:

Grouping activities around products or product groups.

Other Forms of Departmentalization:Some organizations group certain activities by:

Time.

Sequence.

Other Considerations

Sometimes departments are called something different, such as:

Division.

Units.

Section.

Bureaus.

Establishing Reporting Relationships

What needs to be clarified?

Chain of Command:

Clear and distinct lines of authority among all positions in an organization.

Span of Management: What is it?

The number of people who report to each manager.

Tall Versus Flat OrganizationsWhat is the difference?

Flat organizational structure leads to higher levels of employee morale and productivity.

Tall organizational structures usually tend to be more expensive requiring more managers.

Factors Influencing the Span of Management

Competence of supervisor and subordinates.

Dispersion of subordinates.

Extent of non-supervisory work.

Degree of required supervision.

Extent of standard procedures.

Similarity of tasks.

Frequency of new problems.

Preferences of supervision.

Distributing Authority: An Important Building Block

Authority:

Power that has been legitimized by the organization.

Delegation:

The process by which managers assign a portion of their total workload to others.

Decentralization and Centralization

What are the differences?

Decentralization:

The process of systematically delegating power and authority throughout the organization to middle- and lower-level managers.

Centralization:

The process of systematically retaining power and authority in the hands of upper-level managers.

Coordinating Activities

What is coordination?

The process of linking the activities of the various departments of the organization.

Why coordinate?

Systems must be put into place to keep the activities of each department focused on organizational goal attainment.

Three Major Forms of Interdependence

Pooled Interdependence:

When units operate with little interaction; their output is simply pooled at the organizational level.

Sequential Interdependence:

When the output of a unit comes becomes then input for another unit.

Reciprocal Interdependence:

When activities flow both ways.

Structural Coordination Techniques

Managerial hierarchy.

Rules and procedures.

Liaison roles.

Task force.

What Is the Difference Between Line and Staff?

Line Position:

A position in the direct chain of command that is responsible for the achievement of an organization’s goals.

Staff Position:

A position intended to provide expertise, advise, and support for the line position.